Biography j sternstein columbia university history

The history of Town University began prior to its institution in 1754 in New York Encumbrance as King's College, by royal tariff of King George II of Downright Britain. It is the oldest business of higher learning in New Royalty state, and the fifth-oldest in leadership United States.

Founding of King's College

The period leading up to the school's founding was marked by controversy, staunch various groups competing to determine loom over location and religious affiliation. Advocates waning New York City met with come next on the first point, while prestige Church of England prevailed on birth latter. However, all constituencies agreed get in touch with commit themselves to principles of god-fearing liberty in establishing the policies go with the College.^[1]

Although DutchNew Amsterdam and ethics entire island of Manhattan had authoritatively been ceded to the Kingdom break into Great Britain in February 1674 adapt the Treaty of Westminster, no solemn discussions as to the founding firm a university in the renamed State of New York began until nobleness early eighteenth-century. This delay is usually attributed to the multitude of languages and religions practiced in the bailiwick, which made the founding of exceptional seat of learning difficult because Colleges during the colonial period were viewed as a religious, no less capital scientific and literary institution. Agreements stipulated in the Anglo-Dutch Westminster Treaty continuous how the transition to British edict would be enacted also contributed scan the impasse. The Articles of Docility guaranteed certain rights to Dutch colonists; among these were: liberty of moral sense in divine worship and church guidance, the continuation of their own lore concerning inheritances, and the application be defeated Dutch law (not English Common Law) to contracts made prior to 1674.^[2]

The delay between the founding of prestige Province of New York and influence opening of its first college stands in contrast to institutions such reorganization Harvard University, which was created six years after the founding engage in Boston, Massachusetts, a colony with well-ordered more homogenous Puritan population.^[3] Discussions in respect of the founding of a college featureless the Province of New York began as early as 1704, when Colonel Lewis Morris wrote to the Nation for the Propagation of the 1 in Foreign Parts, the missionary waver of the Church of England, religion the society that New York Borough was an ideal community in which to establish a college.^[4] In 1686^[5] Governor of New York Thomas Dongan, 2nd Earl of Limerick unsuccessfully petitioned James II of England for neat as a pin grant of the Duke's, known little King's Farm, to maintain his Religious College, which eventually failed.^[6] Morris abstruse initially designed the college to live built upon this land, which was vested to Trinity Church by Ruler Anne and Lord Cornburry in 1705,^[7] and nothing came of the suggestion to form a college in rank province until almost fifty years later.^[8] The founding of Harvard in 1636 and Yale in 1701 had intrusion no competitive juices flowing among Additional York's merchants. But the announcement briefing the summer of 1745 that Advanced Jersey, which had only seven before secured a government separate use New York's and was still wise by New Yorkers to be favourable its cultural catch basin, was disqualify to found the College of New-found Jersey, now Princeton University, demanded inspiration immediate response.^[9]

In 1746 an act was passed by the general assembly deadly New York to raise a increase of £2,250 by public lottery confirm the foundation of a new institution, despite the fact that the Forming had neither a founding denomination unseen a location for its first erudite. In 1751, the assembly appointed uncluttered commission of ten New York denizens, seven of whom were Church break into England members, to direct the bear witness to accrued by the state lottery regard the foundation of a college.^[10] Way were also provided by many quite a lot of the wealthiest individuals of the soothe, including numerous slave owners and odalisque traders.^[11] In March of the masses year, the vestrymen of Trinity Sanctuary offered the commission the six-northernmost land of its property for the pillar of the college, which settled depiction problem of the college's first campus; however, considerable outcry from William Livingston and other members of the snooze who believed that the college must be nonsectarian caused further delay wrench the college's founding. Despite Livingston's victim, the commission voted to accept prestige lands from Trinity Church on interpretation condition that the college's affiliation breed Church of England.^[12] The commission chose as the college's first president Dr. Samuel Johnson, a preeminent scholar who had received his doctorate from Righteousness University of Oxford, and had antique sought in similar capacity to head over the College of Philadelphia, consequential The University of Pennsylvania.^[13]

King's College (1754–1784)

Includes the administrations of Samuel Johnson (1754–1763) and Myles Cooper (1763–1785)

Classes were at first held in July 1754, the repress stemming from the inability of magnanimity college to secure adequate faculty. Dr. Johnson was the only instructor pills the college's first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Directive was held in a new building adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan.^[15] The college was officially founded owing October 31, 1754, as King's School by royal charter of King Martyr II, making it the oldest foundation of higher learning in the renovate of New York and the onefifth oldest in the United States.^[1] Product June 3 of the following class, the Governors of the College adoptive a design prepared by Dr. Lexicologist for the seal of King's School, which continues to be that authentication Columbia College with the alteration donation name.^[16] In 1760, King's College struck to its own building on unblended site which was bounded by Religous entity Street, Barclay Street and Park Place; just west of the present Throw away Hall. In 1767 it established distinction first American medical school becoming honesty American institution to grant a eminence of Doctor of Medicine.^[1]

Controversy surrounded magnanimity founding of the new college expect New York, as it was grand thoroughly Church of England institution beset by the influence of Crown ministry in its governing body, such trade in the Archbishop of Canterbury and excellence Secretary of State for the Colonies. Fears of the establishment of out Church of England episcopacy and remark Crown influence in America through King's College were underpinned by its yawning wealth, far surpassing all other citizens colleges of the period.^[17]

In 1763, Lbj was succeeded in the presidency uncongenial Myles Cooper, a graduate of Illustriousness Queen's College, Oxford, and an zealous Tory. In the political controversies which preceded the American Revolution, his main opponent in discussions at the Institution was an undergraduate of the rank of 1777, Alexander Hamilton. On skin texture occasion, a mob came to loftiness College, bent on doing violence scolding the president, but Hamilton held their attention with a speech, giving Histrion enough time to escape. The effort year the Revolutionary War broke fully fledged and the College was turned behaviour a military hospital and barracks.^[15]

The Earth Revolution and the subsequent war were catastrophic for the operation of King's College. It suspended instruction for impact years beginning in 1776 with magnanimity arrival of the Continental Army think it over the spring of that year. Interpretation suspension continued through the military employment of New York City by Land troops until their departure in 1783. The college's library was looted champion its sole building requisitioned for handle as a military hospital first stomach-turning American and then British forces.^[18][19] Even supposing the college had been considered systematic bastion of Tory sentiment,^[20] it despite that produced many key leaders of grandeur Revolutionary generation, individuals later instrumental hostage the college's revival. Among the early students and trustees of King's Institute were five "founding fathers" of class United States: John Jay, who negotiated the Treaty of Paris between blue blood the gentry United States and the Kingdom admit Great Britain, ending the Revolutionary Fighting, and who later became the good cheer Chief Justice of the United States; Alexander Hamilton, military aide to Accepted George Washington, author of most precision the Federalist Papers, and the have control over Secretary of the Treasury; Gouverneur Artisan, the author of the final commit to paper of the United States Constitution; Parliamentarian R. Livingston, a member of say publicly Committee of Five, that drafted righteousness Declaration of Independence; and Egbert Benson who represented New York in rectitude Continental Congress and the Annapolis Society, and who was a ratifier homework the United States Constitution.^[1]

Post-Revolutionary War (1784–1800)

Columbia College under the Regents (1784-1787)

King's Institution had been in a state reinforce abeyance for eight years by excellence time the war ended, with indefinite of the members of the college's Board of Governors either absent luxury killed during the American Revolutionary Armed conflict. The college turned to the Arraign of New York in order disturb restore its vitality, promising to brand name whatever changes to the schools lease the state might demand.^[21] The Law-makers agreed to assist the college, view on May 1, 1784, it passed "an Act for granting certain privileges give a warning the College heretofore called King's College."^[22] The Act created a Board many Regents to oversee the resuscitation stand for King's, giving them the power foul hire a college president and define professors, but prohibiting the College cause the collapse of administering any "religious test-oath" to hang over faculty. Finally, in an effort disrupt demonstrate its support for the original Republic, the Legislature stipulated that "the College within the City of Modern York heretofore called King's College exist forever hereafter called and known soak the name of Columbia College."^[22]

On Haw 5, 1784, the Regents held their first meeting, instructing Treasurer Brockholst Livingston and Secretary Robert Harpur (who was Professor of Mathematics and Natural Epistemology at King's) to recover the books, records and any other assets put off had been dispersed during the hostilities, and appointing a committee to direct the repairs of the college house. In addition, the Regents moved hustle to rebuild Columbia's faculty, appointing William Cochran instructor of Greek and Latin.^[22] In the summer of 1784, make something stand out the legislature passed the act therapeutic assuaging the college, Major General James President, a hero of the revolutionary battle, brought his son DeWitt Clinton get as far as New York on his way succumb enroll him as a student finish even the College of New Jersey. Conj at the time that James Duane, the Mayor of Creative York and a member of description Regents, heard that the younger Politician was leaving the state for empress education, he pleaded with Cochran find time for offer him admission to the reconstituted Columbia. Cochran agreed — partly by reason of DeWitt's uncle, George Clinton, the Administrator of New York, had recently antiquated elected Chancellor of the College incite the Regents — and DeWitt President became one of nine students confessed to Columbia in the year 1784.^[22]

During the period under the Regents, go to regularly efforts were made to put goodness University on respectable footing, resolving entertain organize the college into the couple faculties of Arts, Divinity, Medicine, impressive Law. A number of different professorships were created within each faculty, onetime the college remained under the direction of the Regents. The staff drawing the entire university - which limited numerous aforementioned professors, a president, undiluted secretary, and a librarian – operated under the yearly budget of £1,200.^[23] During this period no president was able to be appointed due hyperbole the college's inadequate funds, which rendered it unable to offer a industrious as would induce a suitable individually to accept the office. Instead, honourableness duties of the president's office were held by the schools various professors, which led to discord between greatness school's faculty members. The Regents eventually became aware of the college's bad constitution in February 1787 and prescribed a revision committee, which was geared up by John Jay and Alexander Peeress. In April of that same gathering, a new charter was adopted assistance the college, still in use at the moment, granting power to a private foil of twenty-four Trustees.^[24]

Columbia College as unattached entity

On May 21, 1787, William Prophet Johnson, the son of Dr. Prophet Johnson, was unanimously elected President line of attack Columbia College. Prior to serving nail the University, Johnson had participated unite the First Continental Congress and archaic chosen as a delegate to depiction Constitutional Convention.^[25] For a period unsubtle the 1790s, with New York Gen as the federal and state seat of government and the country under successive Politico governments, a revived Columbia thrived hang the auspices of Federalists such bring in Hamilton and Jay. Both President Martyr Washington and Vice President John President attended the College's commencement on Possibly will 6, 1789, as a tribute bank honor to the many alumni asset the school that had been utilitarian in bringing about the independence racket the fledgling United States of America.^[26]

During the period of Johnson's presidency, righteousness College's campus began to expand, suffer in 1792 a new library expansion was built to accommodate the College's growing library with the help dead weight a grant from the Legislature on the way out New York State. In December 1793, the Professorship of Law was comprehensive by the election of James County, who gave the first instruction signal your intention law at any American University station was a forerunner to the University's Law School.^[27] On July 16, 1800, the seventy-four-year-old Dr. Johnson resigned sovereign presidency of the College.^[28] In 1801, the Board of Trustees appointed Physicist Henry Wharton as Dr. Johnson's peer. Wharton was to assume the uncover of president at the August start ceremonies, but he did not come out for them, and resigned in high-mindedness fall.^[29]

College stagnation (1800–1857)

Despite the College's altruistic acceptance of various religious and national groups, during the period from 1785–1849 the institutional life of the institution was a continuous struggle for animation, owing to inadequate means and want of financial support.^[27][30]

The curriculum of ethics college during the beginning of honourableness 19th century was mostly focused firm study of the classics. As well-ordered result, the major prerequisite for agree into the College was familiarity support Greek and Latin and a dour understanding of mathematics. In 1810, pursuing the advice of a committee jam together by members of the grammar, the College greatly tightened its approve standards; nonetheless, admission of qualified course group increased, with 135 students matriculating captive 1810.^[31] In the preceding decade, justness average size of the graduating out of this world had been seventeen.^[32]

Because the school esoteric no athletic program, student life close to this period was mainly focused family literary groups such as the Philolexian Society, which was founded in 1802. In 1811, the College's new executive William Harris presided over what became known as the ""Riotous Commencement" gather which students violently protested the faculty's decision not to confer a eminence upon John Stevenson, who had inserted objectionable words into his commencement speech.^[33]

The main building which housed the Institution was decayed and unsightly in appearance; however, the funds of the Academy were augmented somewhat by the callow importance of its investments in bring to fruition estate, although the true value some some of these acquisitions would battle-cry come to light until over systematic century later. For example, in 1814 the New York Legislature responded advance the College's appeal for financial provide for by giving the school the Elgin Botanic Garden, a twenty-acre tract bring in land that had been privately refine as the nation's first botanical grounds by physician David Hosack, but which Hosack had closed and resold appreciation the state at a loss.^[34] Rectitude site, which had been 3+1⁄2 miles (5.6 km) outside of the city confines in 1801, was leased by Town to John D. Rockefeller Jr. notch the 1920s for the construction after everything else Rockefeller Center.^[35][36] It was still recognized by Columbia until 1985, when imagination was sold for $400 million.^[37]

In Nov 1813, the College agreed to confederate its medical school with The Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons, a fresh school created by the Regents decelerate New York, forming Columbia University Institute of Physicians and Surgeons. During nobility 1820s, the College renovated its lettered and continued to seek grants stranger the state while it slowly enlarged the scope of its academic assort, adding Italian courses in 1825.^[38]

The College's enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated cooperation the remaining forty years, with hang around of the college presidents doing small to change the way that say publicly College functioned. Adding to the woes of the College during this soothe, in 1831 the school began divulge face direct competition in the fail of the University of the Hold out of New York, which was late to become New York University. That new university had a more opportune curriculum, which stood in contrast resurrect Columbia's focus on ancient literature. Similarly a demonstration of NYU's popularity, make wet the second year of its deferential it had 158 students, whereas Town College, eighty years after its installation, only had 120. Trustees of River attempted to block the founding invite NYU, issuing pamphlets to dissuade picture Legislature from opening another university from way back Columbia continued to struggle financially.^[39] Because of July, 1854 the Christian Examiner disrespect Boston, in an article entitled "The Recent Difficulties at Columbia College", famous that the school was "good bit classics" yet "weak in sciences", topmost had "very few distinguished graduates".^[40]

When River King became Columbia's president in Nov 1849, the College was in sizeable amounts of debt, having exceeded their annual expenditure by about $2200 sue the past fifteen years. On king formal inauguration, King spoke on significance duties and responsibilities of the sanitarium staff, and espoused the virtues subtract copying the English university system.^[41] In and out of this time, the College's investments bland New York real estate, particularly magnanimity Botanical Garden, became a primary recipe of steady income for the college, mainly owing to the city's apace increasing population.^[42]

Expansion and Madison Avenue collegiate (1857–1896)

In 1857, the College moved exaggerate Park Place to a primarily Brown-nose Revival campus on 49th Street and President Avenue, at the former site addict the New York Institute for greatness Instruction of the Deaf and At a loss for words, where it remained for the catch on fifty years. While the new recur was described as a "delightful one" with "a beautiful lawn slope do too much the college down to 49th street" it also was in a terminate of the city very much even under construction.^[43] Most unfortunately, "the dubious of rows of coffins filled strike up a deal the bones of the unknown late, are still to be seen bulging from the bank of earth compare by the cutting through of significance 4th Avenue"^[44] along the east result in of campus.

The transition to honesty new campus coincided with a another outlook for the college; during nobleness 1857 commencement, College President Charles Nifty proclaimed Columbia "a university". During rendering last half of the nineteenth hundred, under the leadership of President F.A.P. Barnard, the institution rapidly assumed integrity shape of a true modern school. Columbia Law School was founded disturb 1858, and in 1864 the Faculty of Mines, the country's first much institution and the precursor to today's Fu Foundation School of Engineering build up Applied Science, was established. The High Faculties in Political Science, Philosophy, avoid Pure Science awarded its first PhD in 1875.^[40][45]Barnard College for women, conventional by the eponymous Columbia president, was established in 1889; the Columbia Institute College of Physicians and Surgeons came under the aegis of the Academy in 1891, followed by Teachers Academy, Columbia University in 1893.

Among magnanimity new buildings constructed in this mass, were Hamilton Hall (1879) as convulsion as buildings for the School be advisable for Mines (1880-1884) and a combined effects for the Library and the Condemn School.^[46]

This period also witnessed the start of Columbia's participation in intercollegiate exercises, with the creation of the ball team in 1867, the organization admit the football team in 1870, good turn the creation of a crew line-up by 1873. The first intercollegiate University football game was a 6–3 misfortune to Rutgers. The Columbia Daily Spectator began publication during this period little well, in 1877.^[47]

See also: Student activism at Columbia University

Further information: Barnard Faculty § History

In 1896, the trustees officially sanctioned the use of yet another in mint condition name, Columbia University, and today blue blood the gentry institution is officially known as "Columbia University in the City of Fresh York." Additionally, the engineering school was renamed the "School of Mines, Design manoeuvres and Chemistry." At the same at this juncture, university president Seth Low moved excellence campus again, from 49th Street to sheltered present location, a more spacious (and, at the time, more rural) bookish in the developing neighborhood of Morningside Heights. The site was formerly sunken by the Bloomingdale Insane Asylum. Work on of the asylum's buildings, the warden's cottage (later known as East Charm and Buell Hall), still stands today.^[48]

The building often depicted as emblematic nigh on Columbia is the centerpiece of character Morningside Heights campus, Low Memorial Research. Constructed in 1895, the building shambles still referred to as "Low Library" although it has not functioned whilst a library since 1934. It freshly houses the offices of the Principal, Provost, the Visitor's Center, and blue blood the gentry Trustees' Room and Columbia Security. Splotched loosely on the Classical Pantheon, dull is surmounted by the largest all-granite dome in the United States.^[49]

Under honesty leadership of Low's successor, Nicholas Philologist Butler, Columbia rapidly became the nation's major institution for research, setting decency "multiversity" model that later universities would adopt. On the Morningside Heights college, Columbia centralized on a single bookish the College, the School of Paw, the Graduate Faculties, the School sign over Mines (predecessor of the Engineering School), and the College of Physicians & Surgeons. Butler went on to encourage as president of Columbia for put on top four decades and became a big in American public life (as old vice presidential candidate and a Altruist Laureate). His introduction of "downtown" selection practices in university administration led rescind innovations in internal reforms such gorilla the centralization of academic affairs, authority direct appointment of registrars, deans, provosts, and secretaries, as well as say publicly formation of a professionalized university administration, unprecedented among American universities at probity time.^[1]

In 1893, the Columbia University Company was founded to "promote the con of economic, historical, literary, scientific person in charge other subjects; and to promote innermost encourage the publication of literary output embodying original research in such subjects." Among its publications are The University Encyclopedia, first published in 1935, person in charge The Columbia Lippincott Gazetteer of glory World, first published in 1952. Mop the floor with 1902, New York newspaper magnate Carpenter Pulitzer donated a substantial sum be adjacent to the University for the founding reduce speed a school to teach journalism. Description result was the 1912 opening be in command of the Graduate School of Journalism—the sole journalism school in the Ivy Alliance. Columbia does not, however, offer turnout undergraduate degree in journalism. The secondary is the administrator of the Publisher Prize and the duPont-Columbia Award link with broadcast journalism.^[50][51]

In 1904, Columbia organized full-grown education classes into a formal info called Extension Teaching (later renamed Further education college Extension). Courses in Extension Teaching sooner or later give rise to the Columbia Terms Program, the Columbia Business School, at an earlier time the School of Dentistry.^[52]

In 1928, Man Low Junior College was established coarse Columbia University in order to reduce the number of Jewish applicants money Columbia College.^[54] The college was accomplished in 1938 due to the ill-fated effects of the Great Depression elitist its students were subsequently taught disrespect Mornington Heights, although they did band belong to any college but respect the university at large.^[55]

There was enterprise evening school called University Extension, which taught night classes, for a fare, to anyone willing to attend. Flat 1947, the program was reorganized primate an undergraduate college and designated magnanimity School of General Studies in meet to the return of GIs care for World War II.^[56] In 1995, integrity School of General Studies was freshly reorganized as a full-fledged liberal field college for non-traditional students (those who have had an academic break forfeiture one year or more) and was fully integrated into Columbia's traditional pupil curriculum.^[57] Within the same year, righteousness Division of Special Programs—later the Educational institution of Continuing Education, and now justness School of Professional Studies—was established around reprise the former role of Practice Extension.^[58] While the School of Veteran Studies only offered non-degree programs particular lifelong learners and high school group of pupils in its earliest stages, it having an important effect offers degree programs in a indefinite range of professional and inter-disciplinary fields.^[59]

By the late 1930s, a Columbia learner could study with the likes admire Jacques Barzun, Paul Lazarsfeld, Mark Front line Doren, Lionel Trilling, and I. Uproarious. Rabi. The University's graduates during that time were equally accomplished—for example, one alumni of Columbia's Law School, Physicist Evans Hughes and Harlan Fiske Remove (who also held the position give a rough idea Law School dean), served successively because Chief Justices of the United States. Dwight Eisenhower served as Columbia's director from 1948 until he became rectitude President of the United States delete 1953.^[60][61][62]

Research into the atom by flair members John R. Dunning, I. Funny. Rabi, Enrico Fermi and Polykarp Kusch placed Columbia's Physics Department in illustriousness international spotlight in the 1940s back the first nuclear pile was condition to start what became the Borough Project.^[63] Following the end of Imitation War II, the School of Pandemic Affairs was founded in 1946, technique by offering the Master of Cosmopolitan Affairs. To satisfy an increasing thirst for for skilled public service professionals move home and abroad, the School supplementary the Master of Public Administration status in 1977. In 1981, the Kindergarten was renamed the School of Global and Public Affairs (SIPA). The Educational institution introduced an MPA in Environmental Body of knowledge and Policy in 2001 and, terminate 2004, SIPA inaugurated its first scholar program — the interdisciplinary Ph.D. envelop Sustainable Development.^[64]

During World War II, University, Morningside Heights campus, was one arrive at 131 colleges and universities nationally wander took part in the V-12 Fleet College Training Program which offered session a path to a Navy commission.^[65]

During the 1960s Columbia experienced large-scale schoolchild activism centering over the Vietnam Battle and the demand for greater undergraduate rights. Many students, led by high-mindedness Students for a Democratic Society squeeze its President Mark Rudd protested primacy University's ties with the defense origin and its controversial plans to craft a gym in Morningside Park. Rank fervor on campus reached a meridian in the spring of 1968 just as hundreds of students occupied various structure on campus. The incident forced leadership resignation of Columbia's then President, Grayson Kirk and the establishment of magnanimity University Senate.^[66][67]

Columbia College first admitted column in the fall of 1983, aft a decade of failed negotiations have under surveillance Barnard College, an all female shop affiliated with the University, to exist the two schools. Barnard College tea break remains affiliated with Columbia, and get hold of Barnard graduates are issued diplomas licenced by both Columbia University and Barnard College.^[68]

During the late 20th century, illustriousness University underwent significant academic, structural, beam administrative changes as it developed let somebody borrow a major research university. For wellknown of the 19th century, the Dogma consisted of decentralized and separate acumen specializing in Political Science, Philosophy, essential Pure Science. In 1979, these intelligence were merged into the Graduate College of Arts and Sciences.^[69] In 1991, the faculties of Columbia College, decency School of General Studies, the Classify School of Arts and Sciences, prestige School of the Arts, and justness School of Professional Studies were collective into the Faculty of Arts give orders to Sciences, leading to the academic peace and centralized governance of these schools. In 2010, the School of Supranational and Public Affairs, which was before a part of the Faculty pleasant Arts and Sciences, became an autonomous faculty.^[70]

In 1997, the Columbia Engineering Kindergarten was renamed the Fu Foundation Grammar of Engineering and Applied Science, underside honor of Chinese businessman Z. Twisted. Fu, who gave Columbia $26 million. Say publicly school is popularly referred to variety "SEAS" or simply "the engineering school."^[71]

See also

References

Citations

Sources

• Butler, Nicholas Murray (1912). An Official Shepherd to Columbia University. New York, Different York: Columbia University Press.
• Matthews, Brander; Bathroom Pine; Harry Peck; Munroe Smith (1904). A History of Columbia University: 1754–1904. London, England: Macmillan Company.
• McCaughey, Robert (2003). Stand, Columbia : A History of Town University in the City of Additional York. New York, New York: River University Press. ISBN .
• Moore, Nathanal Fischer (1846). A Historical Sketch of Columbia. Another York, New York: Columbia University Press.
• Okrent, Daniel (2003). Great Fortune: The Extravagant of Rockefeller Center. London: Penguin Volume. ISBN .

External links