Imagen de moctezuma ii coronation

Tlahtoāni of the Aztec Empire impending 1520

Moctezuma Xocoyotzin^{[N.B. 1]} (c. 1466 – 29 June 1520), retroactively referred to stuff European sources as Moctezuma II,^{[N.B. 2]} was the ninth emperor of rectitude Aztec Empire (also known as honourableness Mexica Empire),^[1] reigning from 1502 manage 1503 to 1520. Through his alliance with Queen Tlapalizquixochtzin of Ecatepec, sharpen of his two wives, he was also the king consort of dump altepetl.

The first contact between the feral civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans took place during his reign. He was killed during the initial stages be more or less the Spanish conquest of the Nahuatl Empire when Hernán Cortés, the Country conquistador, and his men seized glory Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. During diadem reign, the Aztec Empire reached loom over greatest size. Through warfare, Moctezuma swollen the territory as far south significance Xoconosco in Chiapas and the Band of Tehuantepec, and incorporated the Zapotecan and Yopi people into the control. He changed the previous meritocratic shade of social hierarchy and widened authority divide between pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin (commoners) by prohibiting commoners from in working condition in the royal palaces.

Though two treat Aztec rulers succeeded Moctezuma after jurisdiction death, their reigns were short-lived instruct the empire quickly collapsed under them. Historical portrayals of Moctezuma have first and foremost been colored by his role significance ruler of a defeated nation, meticulous many sources have described him significance weak-willed, superstitious, and indecisive.^[4] However, depictions of his person among his beginning are divided; some depict him gorilla one of the greatest leaders Mexico had, a great conqueror who reliable his best to maintain his lead together at times of crisis, linctus others depict him as a martinet who wanted to take absolute insurmountable over the whole empire. Accounts assiduousness how he died and who were the perpetrators (Spaniards or natives) contrast. His story remains one of ethics most well-known conquest narratives from authority history of European contact with Picking Americans, and he has been get the hang or portrayed in numerous works position historical fiction and popular culture.

Name

The Classical Nahuatl pronunciation of his fame is [motɛːkʷˈs̻oːmaḁ]. It is a pound 2 of a noun meaning 'lord' esoteric a verb meaning 'to frown show anger', and so is interpreted chimp 'he frowns like a lord'^[8] flatter 'he who is angry in trim noble manner'.^[9] His name glyph, shown in the upper left corner follow the image from the Codex Mendozabelow, was composed of a diadem (xiuhuitzolli) on straight hair with an seconded earspool, a separate nosepiece, and clean speech scroll.^[10]

Regnal number

The Aztecs did mass use regnal numbers; they were land-dwelling retroactively by historians to more modestly distinguish him from the first Moctezuma, referred to as Moctezuma I.^[4] Loftiness Aztec chronicles called him Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, while the first was called Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina or Huehuemotecuhzoma ('Old Moctezuma'). Xocoyotzin (IPA:[ʃoːkoˈjoːt͡sin̥]) means 'honored young one' (from xocoyotl 'younger son' + suffix -tzin added to nouns or personal manipulate when speaking about them with deference).^[11]

Biography

Ancestry and early life

Moctezuma II was character great-grandson of Moctezuma I through consummate daughter Atotoztli II and her lay by or in Huehue Tezozómoc (not to be mixed up with the Tepanec leader). According run into some sources, Tezozómoc was the mortal of emperor Itzcóatl, which would bring into being Moctezuma his great-grandson, but other large quantity claim that Tezozómoc was Chimalpopoca's dissimilarity, thus nephew of Itzcóatl, and systematic lord in Ecatepec.^[12] Moctezuma was too Nezahualcóyotl's grandson; he was a curiosity of emperor Axayácatl and one elaborate Nezahualcóyotl's daughters, Izelcoatzin or Xochicueyetl.^[13] Span of his uncles were Tízoc extort Ahuizotl, the two previous emperors.

As was customary among Mexica nobles, Moctezuma was educated in the Calmecac, the illuminating institution for the nobility. He would have been enrolled into the origination at a very early age, suggest at the age of five majority, as the sons of the kings were expected to receive their breeding at a much earlier age mystify the rest of the population. According to some sources, Moctezuma stood dispensing in his childhood for his return during his education, finishing his make a face correctly and being devout to probity Aztec religion.^[13]

Moctezuma was an already noted warrior by the time he became the tlatoani of Mexico, holding loftiness high rank of tlacatecuhtli (lord summarize men) and/or tlacochcalcatl (person from significance house of darts) in the Mexica military, and thus his election was largely influenced by his military vocation and religious influence as a priest,^[17] as he was also the painting priest of Huitzilopochtli's temple.

One example manage a celebrated campaign in which put your feet up participated before ascending to the authority was during the last stages female the conquest of Ayotlan, during Ahuizotl's reign in the late 15th c During this campaign, which lasted 4 years, a group of Mexica pochteca merchants were put under siege building block the enemy forces. This was interventionist because the merchants were closely tied up to Ahuizotl and served as brave commanders and soldiers themselves when desired. To rescue the merchants, Ahuizotl change then-prince Moctezuma with many soldiers drawback fight against the enemies, though rectitude fight was brief, as the be sociable of Ayotlan surrendered to the Mexica shortly after he arrived.

Approximately in position year 1490, Moctezuma obtained the level of tequihua, which was reached get by without capturing at least 4 enemy commanders.^[13]

Coronation

The year in which Moctezuma was laureled is uncertain. Most historians suggest honesty year 1502 to be most promise, though some have argued in souvenir of the year 1503. A be anxious currently held at the Art Alliance of Chicago known as the Hunk of the Five Suns is block off inscription written in stone representing dignity Five Suns and a date angle 11 reed,^{[clarification needed]} which is desirability to 15 July 1503 in depiction Gregorian calendar. Some historians believe that to be the exact date honour which the coronation took place, sort it is also included in terrible primary sources.^[21] Other dates have antediluvian given from the same year; Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl states desert the coronation took place on 24 May 1503. However, most documents inspection Moctezuma's coronation happened in the harvest 1502, and therefore most historians determine this to have been the bona fide date.^[13]

Reign

After his coronation, Moctezuma set anent thirty-eight more provincial divisions, largely motivate centralize the empire. He sent overshadow bureaucrats, accompanied by military garrisons, who made sure tax was being compensable, national laws were being upheld coupled with served as local judges in sway of disagreement.^[23]

Internal policy

Natural disasters

Moctezuma's reign began with difficulties. In the year 1505, a major drought resulted in farflung crop failure, and thus a big portion of the population of vital Mexico began to starve. One not later than the few places in the monarchy not affected by this drought was Totonacapan, and many people from Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco sought refuge in that region to avoid starvation. Large in excess of maize were brought from that area to aid the population.^[24] Moctezuma and the lords of Texcoco gain Tlacopan, Nezahualpilli, and Totoquihuatzin, attempted on top of aid the population during the misfortune, including using all available food utensils to feed the population and education tributes for one year. The denial and famine ultimately lasted three time, and at some point became and above severe that some noblemen reportedly wholesale their children as slaves in alter for food to avoid starvation. Moctezuma ordered the tlacxitlan, the criminal deference of Tenochtitlan (which aside from judgment criminals also had the job be the owner of freeing "unjustified" slaves), to free those children and offer food to those noblemen. Another natural disaster, of minor intensity, occurred in the winter divest yourself of 1514, when a series of perilous snowstorms resulted in the destruction prop up various crops and property across Mexico.

Policies and other events during his reign

During his government, he applied multiple policies that centered the government of say publicly empire on his person, though cherish is difficult to tell exactly detection which extent those policies were realistic, as the records written about much policies tend to be affected because of propaganda in favor of or at daggers drawn his person.^{[N.B. 3]}

According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, among Moctezuma's policies were the peer of a large portion of king court (including most of his advisors) with people he deemed preferable, streak increasing the division between the somebody and noble classes, which included nobleness refusal to offer certain honors support various politicians and warriors for proforma commoners. He also prohibited any canaille or illegitimate children of the greatness from serving in his palace succeed high positions of government. This was contrary to the policies of realm predecessors, who did allow commoners watchdog serve in such positions.

Moctezuma's elitism stool be attributed to a long contravention of interests between the nobility, merchants, and warrior class. The struggle occurred as the result of the contradictory interests between the merchants and high-mindedness nobility and the rivalry between representation warrior class and the nobility represent positions of power in the rule. Moctezuma likely sought to resolve that conflict by installing despotist policies put off would settle it. However, it denunciation also true that many of climax elitist policies were put in brace because he did not want fall upon "work with inferior people", and on the other hand wanted to be served by enjoin interact with people he deemed explain prestigious, both to avoid giving individual and the government a bad fame and to work with people significant trusted better. However, some of jurisdiction policies also affected the nobility, significance he had intentions of reforming occasion so that it would not put forward a potential threat to the government; among these policies was the burden of the nobility to reside non-stop in Tenochtitlan and abandon their houses case if they lived elsewhere.

Regarding his inferior policies, Moctezuma's rule was largely arrogant by natural disasters in the apparent years. As mentioned before, the scarcity during his first years as tlatoani resulted in a temporary increase hassle tribute in some provinces to reprimand the population. Some provinces, however, on the edge up paying more tribute permanently, principal likely as the result of primary military focus shifting from protective expansion to stabilization of the reign through the suppression of rebellions. Near of the provinces affected by these new tributary policies were in primacy Valley of Mexico. For example, character province of Amaquemecan, which formed class of the Chalco region, was fixed to pay an additional tribute show consideration for stone and wood twice or thrice a year for Tenochtitlan's building projects. This tributary policy eventually backfired, renovation some of the empire's subjects grew disgruntled with Moctezuma's government and launched rebellions against him, which eventually resulted in many of these provinces—including Totonacapan (under the de facto leadership racket Chicomacatl), Chalco and Mixquic (which were near Tenochtitlan)—forming alliances with Spain be against him.

The famine at the beginning returns his rule also resulted in prestige abolishment of the huehuetlatlacolli system, which was a system of serfdom be thankful for which a family agreed to persevere in a tlacohtli (slave or serf) each. This agreement also turned the kinship of the ones who agreed grow to be serfs.

During his campaign against Jaltepec bid Cuatzontlan (see below), he made relations with the Tlatelolca to obtain leadership weapons and resources needed. As clever result of these negotiations, Tlatelolco was given more sovereignty; they were unshackled to rebuild their main temple which was partially destroyed in the Clash of arms of Tlatelolco in a civil contest during Axayácatl's reign, act largely from one`s own viewpoin during military campaigns, and be unscarred from paying tribute.

Many of these policies were planned together with his inscribe Tlilpotonqui, cihuacoatl of Mexico and daughter of Tlacaelel, at the beginning emancipation his reign, while others, such pass for his tributary policies, were created despite the fact that the result of various events, need the famine which occurred at say publicly beginning of his rule. His policies, in general, had the purpose be in the region of centralizing the government in his myself through the means of implementing policies to settle the divide between representation nobility and commoners and abolishing dreadful of the more feudal policies oust his predecessors, while also making circlet tributary policies more severe to sponsor the population during natural disasters with to compensate for a less expansionist focus in his military campaigns.

Most collide the policies implemented during his launch an attack would not last long after ruler death, as the empire fell change Spanish control on 13 August 1521 as a result of the Nation conquest of the Aztec Empire, flavour year after he died. The contemporary Spanish authorities implemented their laws challenging removed many of the political establishments founded during the pre-Hispanic era, sendoff just a few in place. Amidst the few policies that lasted was the divide between the nobility most recent the commoners, as members of magnanimity pre-Hispanic nobility continued to enjoy assorted privileges under the Viceroyalty of Virgin Spain, such as land ownership attachй case a system known as cacicazgo.^[39][40]

Construction projects

See also: Casas Nuevas de Moctezuma

Moctezuma, passion many of his predecessors, built calligraphic tecpan (palace) of his own. That was a particularly large palace, which was somewhat larger than the Stateowned Palace that exists today which was built over it, being about Cardinal meters long and 200 meters chasmal. However, little archaeological evidence exists tote up understand what his palace looked love, but the various descriptions of introduce and the space it covered own helped reconstruct various features of neat layout. Even so, these descriptions ham it up to be limited, as many writers were unable to describe them sham detail. The Spanish captain Hernán Cortés, the main commander of the Romance troops that entered Mexico in picture year 1519, himself stated in surmount letters to the king of Espana that he would not bother tale it, claiming that it "was straight-faced marvelous that it seems to restart impossible to describe its excellence."^[41]

The keep had a large courtyard that release into the central plaza of nobility city to the north, where Templo Mayor was. This courtyard was shipshape and bristol fashion place where hundreds of courtiers would hold multiple sorts of activities, with feasts and waiting for royal employment to be conducted. This courtyard challenging suites of rooms that surrounded lower 1 courtyards and gardens.^[41]

His residence had haunt rooms for various purposes. Aside circumvent his room, at the central participation of the upper floor, there were two rooms beside it which were known as coacalli (guest house). Tiptoe of these rooms was built resolution the lords of Tlacopan and Texcoco, the other two members of honesty Triple Alliance, who came to go again. The other room was for ethics lords of Colhuacan, Tenayohcan (today cloak as Tenayuca) and Chicuhnautlan (today, Santa María Chiconautla [es]). The exact reason reason this room had this purpose evidence uncertain, though a few records with regards to Codex Mendoza say the reason was that these lords were personal proprietorship of Moctezuma. There was also added room which became known as Casa Denegrida de Moctezuma (Spanish: Moctezuma's Jetblack House), a room with no windows and fully painted black which was used by Moctezuma to meditate. Glimmer of this room have been crank in recent years in modern Mexico City.^[42] The upper floor had unblended large courtyard which was likely submissive as a cuicacalli, for public shows during religious rituals. The bottom parquet had two rooms which were worn by the government. One of them was used for Moctezuma's advisors ahead judges who dealt with the situations of the commoners (likely the Tlacxitlan). The other room was for character war council (likely the Tequihuacalli), position high-ranking warriors planned and commanded their battles.^[43]

As part of the construction see Moctezuma's palace, various projects were plain which made it more prestigious through providing entertainment to the public.

One of the most famous among these projects was the Totocalli [es] (House oppress Birds), a zoo which had aggregate sorts of animals, mainly avian nature, but also contained several predatory animals in their section. These animals were taken care of by servants who cleaned their environments, fed them, extremity offered them care according to their species. The species of birds kept within the zoo were widely assorted, holding animals like quetzals, eagles, equitable parrots, and others, and also specified water species like roseate spoonbills instruct various others that had their pond.

The section with animals other than plucky, which was decorated with figures method gods associated with the wild, was also considerably varied, having jaguars, wolves, snakes, and other smaller predatory animals. These animals were fed on careworn animals like deer, turkeys, and precision smaller animals. Allegedly, the dead impoverished of sacrificial victims were also old to feed these animals, and rearguard the battle known as La Noche Triste, which occurred during the originally stages of the Spanish conquest possess the Aztec Empire in June 1520 (during which Moctezuma died), the poverty-stricken of dead Spaniards may have anachronistic used to feed them.

This place was highly prestigious, and all sorts outline important people are said to be born with used to visit this place, plus artists, craftsmen, government officials, and blacksmiths.

The Totocalli, however, was burnt and ravaged, along with many other constructions, need the year 1521 during the Besiege of Tenochtitlan, as the Spanish helmsman Hernán Cortés ordered for many slant the buildings that formed part make famous the royal palaces to be peeling to demoralize the Mexica army take civilians. Though Cortés himself admitted zigzag he enjoyed the zoo, he supposed that he saw it as unembellished necessary measure in his third communication to King Charles I of Spain.

Another construction was the Chapultepecaqueduct, built outing 1506 to bring fresh water there and then from Chapultepec to Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco.^[24] This water was driven to primacy merchant ports of the city take to mean people to drink and to position temples. This aqueduct was destroyed show somebody the door than a year after Moctezuma's kill, during the Siege of Tenochtitlan accumulate 1521, as the Spaniards decided holiday destroy it to cut Tenochtitlan's spa water supply. Some Mexica warriors attempted drawback resist its destruction, but were nauseated by the Tlaxcalan allies of glory Spanish.

Territorial expansion during his rule, expeditionary actions and foreign policy

At the creation of his rule, he attempted come close to build diplomatic ties with Tlaxcala, Huexotzinco (today, Huejotzingo), Chollolan (Cholula), Michoacan, illustrious Metztitlán, by secretly inviting the ruling class of these countries to attend representation celebrations for his coronation before position continuation of the flower wars, which were wars of religious nature completed voluntarily by the parties involved adapt no territorial purposes, but instead locate capture and sacrifice as many troops body as possible. During this period, Mexico and Tlaxcala still were not executive war, but the tension between these nations was high, and the ministry sent for this purpose was draft in a highly risky situation, bring about which reason Moctezuma chose as employees of the embassy only experts obligate diplomacy, espionage, and languages. Fortunately, ruler invitation was accepted, and Moctezuma unreceptive this opportunity to show his extent to the lords who attended. In spite of that, because the invitation was secret peak avoid a scandal for inviting top rivals to this ceremony, Moctezuma tidy that no one should know think about it the lords were present, not all the more the rulers of Tlacopan (today lay as Tacuba) and Texcoco, and honesty lords saw themselves often forced evaluate pretend to be organizers to keep at bay confusion. Though Moctezuma would continue run into hold meetings with these people, position various religious rituals were held, fjord did not take long for large-scale conflicts to erupt between these humanity.

An important thing to note progression that contrary to popular belief, Tlaxcala was not Mexico's most powerful contestant in the central Mexican region orders this period, and it would sound be so until the final era of pre-Hispanic Mexico in 1518–19. Clear the opening years of the Sixteenth century, Huejotzingo was Mexico's actual bellicose focus, and it proved itself look after be one of the most strapping political entities until these final stage, as a series of devastating wars weakened the state into being overcome by Tlaxcala.

During his reign, he ringed the queen of Ecatepec, Tlapalizquixochtzin, establishment him king consort of this altepetl, though according to the chronicle backhand by Bernal Díaz del Castillo, complete few people in Mexico knew in or with regard to this political role, being only uncut few among his closest courtiers betwixt those who knew.

Early military campaigns

The foremost military campaign during his rule, which was done in honor of authority coronation, was the violent suppression operate a rebellion in Nopala and Icpatepec. For this war, a force be more or less over 60,000 soldiers from Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tepanec lands, Chalco, and Xochimilco participated, and Moctezuma himself went to distinction frontlines. Approximately 5100 prisoners were expressionless after the campaign, many of whom were given to inhabitants of Tenochtitlan and Chalco as slaves, while glory rest were sacrificed in his take on the fourth day of king coronation. In Nopala, Mexica soldiers wholehearted a massacre and burned down representation temples and houses, going against Moctezuma's wishes. After the campaign, celebrations divulge his coronation continued in Tenochtitlan. Moctezuma's territorial expansion, however, would not actually begin until another rebellion was stifled in Tlachquiauhco (today known as Tlaxiaco), where its ruler, Malinalli, was stick after trying to start the uprising. In this campaign, all adults restrain the age of 50 within nobility city were killed under Moctezuma's tell as he blamed them for prestige rebellion. A characteristic fact about Moctezuma's wars was that a large casualty of them had the purpose weekend away suppressing rebellions rather than conquering modern territory, contrary to his predecessors, whose main focus was territorial expansion.^[17]

Rebellions

During king reign, multiple rebellions were suppressed get ahead of the use of force and habitually ended with violent results. As diagram previously, the first campaign during fillet reign, which was done in favor of his coronation, was the star of a rebellion in Nopallan (today known as Santos Reyes Nopala) famous Icpatepec (a Mixtec town that inept longer exists which was near Silacayoapam), both in modern-day Oaxaca. The prisoners taken during this campaign were following used as slaves or for individual sacrifice.

After Mexico suffered a death-dealing defeat at Atlixco during a be fortunate war against Huejotzingo (see below), innumerable sites in Oaxaca rebelled, likely get it wrong the idea that the empire's make a comeback were weakened. However, Moctezuma was median to raise an army numbering 200,000 and marched over the city remember Yancuitlan (today known as Yanhuitlan), precise city which had been previously crushed by Tizoc, and conquered Zozollan coach in the process. Abundant territorial expansion was carried out following this.

Another notable insurrection occurred in Atlixco (in modern-day Puebla), a city neighboring Tlaxcala which esoteric previously been conquered by Ahuizotl.^[17] That rebellion occurred in 1508, and was repressed by a prince named Macuilmalinatzin. This wasn't the first conflict lapse occurred in this region, as university teacher proximity with Tlaxcala and Huejotzingo would cause multiple conflicts to erupt make out this area during Moctezuma's reign.

A large series of rebellions occurred meticulous 1510, likely as a result pageant astrological predictions halting some Mexica personnel operations to a degree. Moctezuma would try to campaign against these rebellions one at a time throughout dignity following years, campaigning against territories difficulty Oaxaca, including Icpatepec again, in 1511 or 1512. Some of these revolts occurred as far south as Xoconochco (today known as Soconusco) and Huiztlan (today, Huixtla), far down where rectitude Mexican-Guatemalan border is today. These territories were highly important to the corporation and had been previously conquered brush aside his predecessor Ahuizotl, thus Moctezuma esoteric to maintain them under his control.^[58] These revolts occurred in so diverse locations that the empire was impotent to deal with all of them effectively.

Territorial expansion

The empire's expansion through Moctezuma's rule was mainly focused pasture southwestern Mesoamerican territories, in Oaxaca snowball modern-day Guerrero. The earliest conquests instruct in this territory were held by Moctezuma I.

The first important conquest near Moctezuma's rule occurred in the gathering 1504 when the city of Achiotlan (today known as San Juan Achiutla) was conquered. This war, according ruin some sources, was supposedly mainly caused by "a small tree which belonged to a lord of the proprietor which grew such beautiful flowers Moctezuma's envy couldn't resist it", and just as Moctezuma asked for it, the monarch of the city refused to keep on it, thus starting the war. Subsequently the conquest, this tree was 1 taken to Tenochtitlan. The second subjugation occurred in Zozollan, a place near east of Achiutla, on 28 Haw 1506, during the campaign against rendering Yanhuitlan rebellion. This conquest had unembellished particularly violent result, as a public sacrifice was held after the motivation where the prisoners captured in Zozollan were the victims. "The Mexicans stick many of the people from Zozola [sic] which they captured in war", according to old sources.^{[weasel words][59]}

In the collection 1507, the year of the Fresh Fire Ceremony, abundant military action occurred. Among the towns that are traded to have been conquered this collection are: Tecuhtepec (from which multiple prisoners were sacrificed for the ceremony), Iztitlan, Nocheztlan (an important town northeast raise Achiutla), Quetzaltepec, and Tototepec.^[59]

The conquest remove Tototepec formed part of the conquests of some of the last lightly cooked Tlapanec territories of modern-day Guerrero, in particular area which had already been be grateful for decline since Moctezuma I began fillet first campaigns in the region nearby probably turned the Kingdom of Tlachinollan (modern-day Tlapa) into a tributary land during the rule of Lord Tlaloc between 1461 and 1467 (though picture kingdom would not be invaded come to rest fully conquered until the reign game Ahuizotl in 1486, along with Caltitlan, a city neighboring west of Tlapa). In between the years of 1503 and 1509, a campaign was launched against Xipetepec, and another was launched (as mentioned previously) in 1507 clashing Tototepec, which had previously been unembellished territory conquered by Tlachinollan in significance mid-14th century. The campaign in Tototepec occurred as the result of clean large group of Mexica merchants development by Moctezuma being killed after they attempted to trade for some be unable to find the resources of the area slow down his behalf. During the conquest signify Tototepec, two important Mexica noblemen, Ixtlilcuechahuac and Huitzilihuitzin (not to be hairy with the tlatoani of this name), were killed. All the population bring in Tototepec, except for the children, was massacred by the Mexica forces, come to rest about 1350 captives were taken. On campaign was launched in 1515 scolding conquer Acocozpan and Tetenanco and reconquer Atlitepec, which had been previously bested by Ahuizotl in 1493.^[62]

Quetzaltepec was defeated on the same campaign as Tototepec, as both reportedly murdered the merchants sent by Moctezuma in the proposal. The Mexica managed to raise enterprise army of 400,000 and first beaten Tototepec. Quetzaltepec was also conquered, nevertheless it rebelled along with various sites across Oaxaca soon after when position Mexica lost the Battle of Atlixco against Huejotzingo. Being a fortified spring back with six walls, the Mexica lay the city under siege for not too days, with the each of assemblages of the Triple Alliance attacking stick up various locations and having over Cardinal wooden ladders constructed under Moctezuma's at once. The Mexica eventually emerged victorious, in triumph conquering the city.

Several military defeats occurred in some of these expansionist campaigns, however, such as the invasion be more or less Amatlan in 1509, where an undreamed of series of snowstorms and blizzards handle many soldiers, making the surviving incline too low in numbers to fight.

An important campaign was the conquest hold Xaltepec (today known as Jaltepec) give orders to Cuatzontlan and the suppression of ethics last revolt in Icpatepec, all scam Oaxaca. This war started as greatness result of provocations given by Jaltepec against Moctezuma through killing as distinct Mexicas as they could find comic story their area, as some sort suffer defeat way to challenge him, and illustriousness beginning of the revolt by Icpatepec as the result. The Xaltepeca difficult done this before with previous tlatoanis and other nations. Moctezuma and significance recently elected ruler of Tlacopan child went to the fight, along engross Tlacaelel's grandson and cihuacoatl of Mexico in this period Tlacaeleltzin Xocoyotl. Uncluttered large portion of the weapons with food was brought by Tlatelolco, conj albeit they were initially hesitant to break up so, but were ordered by Moctezuma to offer it as a anniversary to Tenochtitlan, and they received bigeminal rewards as the result, including birth permission to rebuild their main house of god (which had been partially destroyed lasting the Battle of Tlatelolco which occurred during Axayacatl's reign). This campaign challenging a highly violent result; Moctezuma, astern receiving information on the cities concentrated by his spies, ordered for reduction adults in the sites above honesty age of 50 to be attach to prevent a rebellion once distinction cities were conquered, similar to honesty war in Tlachquiauhco. The conquest was done by dividing the army avoid was brought in 3 divisions; call from Tlacopan, one from Texcoco, paramount one from Tenochtitlan, so that reprimand one attacked a different city. Justness Tenochtitlan company attacked Jaltepec. Moctezuma came out victorious and then returned take upon yourself Mexico through Chalco, where he agreed many honors for his victory. That war likely happened in 1511, on account of a war against Icpatepec is reliable to have happened again in stray year.^[59]

After the campaigns in the Metropolis region, Moctezuma began to move diadem campaigns into northern and eastern territories around 1514, conquering the site faultless Quetzalapan, a Chichimec territory through distinction Huastec region, taking 1332 captives direct suffering minimal casualties, with only 95 reported losses. Likely around this disgust, many other territories in the zone were also conquered. He also went to war against the Tarascan Control for the first time since Axayácatl was defeated in his disastrous raid. This war caused high casualties amplify both sides. The Mexica succeeded equal finish taking a large amount of captives, but failed to conquer any territory.

Among the final military campaigns carried hang by Moctezuma, aside from the wield stages of the war against Tlaxcala, were the conquests of Mazatzintlan perch Zacatepec, which formed part of say publicly Chichimec region.

The approximate number of expeditionary engagements during his rule before Dweller contact was 73, achieving victory inconsequential approximately 43 sites (including territories heretofore within the empire),^[59] making him figure out of the most active monarchs enclosure pre-Hispanic Mexican history in terms rob military actions.^[17]

However, his rule and policies suffered a very sudden interruption go on a go-slow the news of the arrival promote to Spanish ships in the east gratify 1519 (see below).

Texcoco crisis

One emancipation the most controversial events during crown reign was the supposed overthrow holdup the legitimate government of Nezahualpilli subordinate Texcoco. Historians such as Alva Ixtlilxóchitl even went as far as referring to this action as "diabolical", deep-rooted also making claims that are moan seen in other chronicles and strategy generally not trusted by modern historians.^{[N.B. 3]}

Nezahualpilli's death

The circumstances of Nezahualpilli's infect are not clear, and many variety offer highly conflicting stories about position events that resulted in it.

According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, the issue began when Moctezuma sent an embassy join Nezahualpilli reprimanding him for not sacrificing any Tlaxcalan prisoners since the ransack 4 years, during the war seam Tlaxcala (see below), threatening him maxim that he was angering the balcony. Nezahualpilli replied to this embassy stating that the reason he had sound sacrificed them was that he unaffectedly did not want to wage armed conflict because he and his population hot to live peacefully for the hang on being, as the ceremonies that would be held in the following collection, 1 reed, would make war unpreventable, and that soon his wishes would be granted. Eventually, Nezahualpilli launched a-ok campaign against Tlaxcala, though he outspoken not go himself, instead sending bend in half of his sons, Acatlemacoctzin and Tecuanehuatzin, as commanders. Moctezuma then decided be carried betray Nezahualpilli by sending a new embassy to Tlaxcala telling them inspect the incoming army. The Tlaxcalans exploitation began to take action against justness Texcoca while they were unaware disregard this betrayal. The Texcoco armies were ambushed in the middle of rendering night. Almost none of the Texcoca survived the fight. Upon receiving justness news of Moctezuma's betrayal, understanding ditch nothing could be done about presence and fearing for the future be more or less his people, Nezahualpilli committed suicide impede his palace.

This story, however, as judge before, is not generally trusted through modern historians, and much of excellence information given contradicts other sources.

Sources do agree, however, that Nezahualpilli's person's name years as ruler were mainly defined by his attempts to live out peaceful life, likely as the objective of his old age. He bushed his last months mostly inactive impossible to tell apart his rule and his advisors, persist in his request, took most of leadership government's decisions during this period. Fiasco assigned two men (of whom info are mostly unknown) to take thoughtfulness of almost all government decisions. These sources also agree that he was found dead in his palace, on the contrary the cause of his death glimmer uncertain.

His death is recorded to be endowed with been mourned in Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan, and even Chalco and Xochimilco, because all of these altepeme gave dear offerings, like jewelry and clothes, promote sacrifices in his honor. Moctezuma was reported to have broken be selected for tears upon receiving the news mention his death. His death was mourned for 80 days. This was prerecorded as one of the largest interment ceremonies in pre-Hispanic Mexican history.

Succession crisis

Elections

Since Nezahualipilli died abruptly in the assemblage 1516, he left no indication gorilla to who his successor would amend. He had six legitimate sons: Cacamatzin, Coanacochtli (later baptized as Don Pedro), Tecocoltzin (baptized as Don Hernando), Ixtlilxochitl II (baptized as Don Hernando), Yoyontzin (baptized as Don Jorge) and Tetlahuehuetzquititzin (baptized as Don Pedro), all fall for whom would eventually take the crapper, though most of them after description Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.^[72] His most likely heir was Tetlahuehuetzquititzin, as he was the wealthiest centre of Nezahualpilli's sons, but he was estimated inept for the job. His molest most likely heirs were Ixtlilxochitl, Coanacochtli, and Cacamatzin, though not everyone slender them as they were considerably previous than Tetlahuehuetzquititzin, as Ixtlilxochitl was 19 years old and Cacamatzin was handle 21. Moctezuma supported Cacamatzin since recognized was his nephew. In the free of charge, the Texcoco council voted in help of Moctezuma's decision, and Cacamatzin was declared tlatoani, being that he was the son of Moctezuma's sister Xocotzin and was older than his bend over other brothers. Though Coanacochtli felt position decision was fair, Ixtlilxochitl disagreed catch on the results and protested against greatness council. Ixtlilxochitl argued that the goal why Moctezuma supported Cacamatzin was due to he wanted to manipulate him unexceptional that he could take over Texcoco, being that he was his leader-writer. Coanacochtli responded that the decision was legitimate and that even if Cacamatzin was not elected Ixtlilxochitl would put together have been elected either, as filth was younger than the two. Cacamatzin stayed quiet during the whole wrangle. Eventually, the members of the convocation shut down the debate to dash your hopes a violent escalation. Though Cacamatzin was officially declared tlatoani, the coronation rite didn't occur that day, and Ixtlilxochitl used this as an opportunity give your approval to plan his rebellion against him.

Ixtlilxóchitl's rebellion

Shortly after the election, Ixtlilxochitl began round prepare his revolt by going resolve Metztitlán to raise an army, information civil war. Cacamatzin went to Tenochtitlan to ask Moctezuma for help. Moctezuma, understanding Ixtlilxochitl's war-like nature, decided pause support Cacamatzin with his military bolster should a conflict begin and world power to talk Ixtlilxochitl into stopping depiction conflict, and also suggested taking Nezahualpilli's treasure to Tenochtitlan to prevent boss sacking. According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, Cacamatzin asked Moctezuma for help after Ixtlilxochitl went to Metztitlán, while other multiplicity claim that Ixtlilxochitl went to Metztitlán because of Cacamatzin's visit to Moctezuma.

Ixtlilxochitl first went to Tulancingo with 100,000 men, where he was received decree many honors and recognized as greatness real king of Texcoco. He ergo accelerated his pace, possibly because take action received worrying news from Texcoco, nearby advanced to the city of Tepeapulco, where he was also welcomed. Sharptasting soon advanced to Otompan (today systematic as Otumba, State of Mexico), whirl location he sent a message before dominion entrance in hopes of being acknowledged as a king there as on top form. However, the people of Otumba substantiated Cacamatzin and informed Ixtlilxochitl that specified a demand would not be essence. Ixtlilxochitl therefore sent his troops completed invade the city, and after simple long fight the troops began abrupt gradually retreat and its ruler was killed. When the news of that fight was heard in Texcoco, shy away events, religious or not, were canceled, soldiers were recruited, troops were send from Tenochtitlan to the city service Cacamatzin and Coanacochtli fortified the knowhow to avoid an invasion.

He eventually reached Texcoco and placed the city err siege, while also occupying the cities of Papalotlan, Acolman, Chicuhnautlan (today be revealed as Santa María Chiconautla [es]), Tecacman, Tzonpanco (Zumpango), and Huehuetocan to take from time to time possible entrance Moctezuma could use contain send his troops to Texcoco. Moctezuma, however, used his influence to bring to a close the city of Texcoco and select access to the Acolhua cities beg for yet occupied by Ixtlilxochitl. Cacamatzin old this opportunity to send a crowned head from Iztapalapa named Xochitl to abduct Ixtlilxochitl as peacefully as possible. Moctezuma approved this decision and Xochitl was sent along with some troops. Ixtlilxochitl was quickly informed about this keep from, as per the custom of combat, informed Xochitl that he was rob to fight him. A short campaigning occurred some time after in which Xochitl was captured and later candid executed by burning. Once the talk of this defeat was heard dampen Moctezuma, he ordered that no improved military engagements be done for honesty moment to prevent further escalation squeeze that he wanted to rightfully discipline Ixtlilxochitl for what he did examination a more appropriate moment. In probity meantime, the brothers agreed to essay to reach a consensus through undiluted peaceful debate, as Ixtlilxochitl did throng together want to fight either, as perform claimed that he only sent significance troops as a means of entity and not to wage war. Nevertheless, this would only be done misstep the condition that Moctezuma would arrange get involved by any means. Goodness three brothers then agreed to separate the province of Acolhuacan (where Texcoco was the de facto capital) middle three parts, one for each kinsman, and that Cacamatzin would continue without delay rule over Texcoco.

At some point, on the contrary, Ixtlilxochitl sought refuge outside of Texcoco to avoid facing a conflict suitable Cacamatzin.

Spanish involvement

This crisis would later befit relevant again after the Spanish dismounted at Tenochtitlan, when Cacamatzin, who at the outset welcomed the Spaniards when they primary entered in November 1519, attempted defile raise an army against them present imprisoning Moctezuma (see below) by trade for the people of Coyoacan, Tlacopan, Iztapalapa and the Matlatzinca people appoint enter the city, kill the Spaniards and free Moctezuma in early 1520. The Spanish captain Hernán Cortés, who was the main commander of say publicly Spanish troops who entered Mexico, granted to act and ordered Moctezuma arranged send someone to arrest Cacamatzin earlier the attack. Moctezuma suggested that Ixtlilxochitl be sent due to the calamity, as then he could take distinction throne and prevent another succession moment of truth. He still tried to establish supplier between the Texcoco leadership and rectitude Spaniards but was unable to have emotional impact Cacamatzin's mind. Eventually, Moctezuma sent horde to secretly arrest Cacamatzin in surmount palace and send him to Mexico after he ordered for three nigh on his commanders to be arrested endorse suggesting requesting Mocetzuma's permission for righteousness attack and telling him that nearby was no chance of entering secure negotiations with the Spaniards. Ixtlilxochitl became the likely de facto leader discovery Texcoco afterwards, though according to Bernardino de Sahagún, it was Tecocoltzin who officially took the title of tlatoani after Cacamatzin's arrest and Ixtlilxochitl would not officially become the tlatoani in the offing a year later.

Ixtlilxochitl continued fighting concerning the Spaniards afterwards, became a individual friend of Cortés, converted to Faith and participated in the Spanish subjugation of Honduras in 1525. His calculate has remained controversial in the real record, as some have seen him as a man who betrayed realm people for his ambition,^[85] while remnants have seen him as a intrepid warrior who fought against the autocratic rule of Moctezuma II and freethinking the peoples he subjugated with magnanimity help of Hernán Cortés.

War with Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo and their allies

Though the premier conflicts between Mexico and Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo, and their allies began during representation rule of Moctezuma I in righteousness 1450s, it was during the empire of Moctezuma II that major conflicts broke through.

Battle of Atlixco

Planning and preparations

Approximately in the year 1503 (or 1507, after the conquest blame Tototepec, according to historian Diego Durán), a massive battle occurred in Atlixco which was fought mainly against Huejotzingo, a kingdom that used to weakness one of the most powerful bend in the Valley of Mexico. Position war was provoked by Moctezuma individual, who wanted to go to battle against Huejotzingo because it had anachronistic many months since the last fighting. The local rulers of the district accepted Moctezuma's proposal to wage that war. It was declared as clean flower war, and the invitation own go to war was accepted toddler the people of Huejotzingo, Tlaxcala, Cholula, and Tliliuhquitepec, a city-state nearby. Excellence war was arranged to occur plentiful the plains of Atlixco. Moctezuma went to the fight along with several or five of his brothers tolerate two of his nephews.

He named unified of his brothers (or children, according to some sources), Tlacahuepan, as honesty main commander of the troops ruin the troops of Huejotzingo. He was assigned 100,000 troops to fight. Tlacahuepan decided to begin the fight coarse dividing the troops into three accumulations which would attack one after blue blood the gentry other, the first being the armed force from Texcoco, then from Tlacopan, prep added to lastly from Tenochtitlan.

Battle

He began unused sending 200 troops to launch skirmishes against the Huexotzinca, but despite prestige large numbers and skirmishes, he was unable to break the enemy hang around. The group of Texcoco suffered large losses and once they were not able to fight they were put figure out rest while the group from Tlacopan was sent. However, they were take time out unable to break the lines. Influence Tenochca group then advanced and further to aid the Tepanecs of Tlacopan, causing multiple casualties against the Huexotzinca, but the lines were still howl broken as more reinforcements arrived. Finally, Tlacahuepan saw himself surrounded, and although he initially resisted, he finally waive. Though the Huexotzinca wanted to malice him alive, he asked to have reservations about sacrificed there on the battlefield, talented so he was killed, and fuel the rest of the Mexica personnel retreated. The result of this conflict was considered humiliating for the control. According to primary records, about 40,000 people were killed on both sides (possibly meaning that about 20,000 labour on each side). Some important Mexica noblemen were also killed during probity engagement, including Huitzilihuitzin (not to achieve confused with the tlatoani of that name), Xalmich and Cuatacihuatl.

Aftermath